Chapter 7 TRIBES, NOMADS AND SETTLED COMMUNITIES

Who Were Tribal People

During the period of evolving kingdoms, many societies existed that did not adhere to the Brahmanical social rules or the caste system. These groups, often referred to as tribes, were unified by kinship ties. Their livelihoods were diverse, encompassing agriculture, hunting, gathering, and herding, often combining these activities to optimize the use of their environment. Some tribes were nomadic, moving with their livestock, while others controlled land and pastures jointly. Tribal communities were frequently found in forests, hills, deserts, and remote areas, often maintaining their freedom and distinct cultures despite occasional clashes with caste-based societies. Historians today utilize oral traditions to reconstruct tribal histories, as written records from these communities are scarce.

Tribal populations were spread across the subcontinent. In Punjab, the Khokhar tribe was influential in the 13th and 14th centuries, followed by the Gakkhars, whose chief, Kamal Khan Gakkhar, was appointed a mansabdar by Emperor Akbar. The Langahs and Arghuns dominated regions of Multan and Sind before Mughal subjugation. The Balochis were a significant tribe in the northwest, organized into smaller clans. The western Himalayas were home to the Gaddis, a shepherd tribe, while the northeastern regions were dominated by tribes like the Nagas and Ahoms. In present-day Bihar and Jharkhand, Chero chiefdoms emerged by the 12th century, though they were eventually subdued by Mughal forces. Other important tribes in this region, Orissa, and Bengal included the Mundas and Santals. The highlands of Maharashtra and Karnataka were inhabited by Kolis and Berads, while the southern regions had large tribal populations like the Koragas and Maravars. The Bhils were spread across western and central India, with some becoming settled agriculturists and zamindars by the late 16th century, while others remained hunter-gatherers. The Gonds resided in the vast forested region of Gondwana, practicing shifting cultivation.

How Nomads And Mobile People Lived

Nomadic pastoralists were a significant part of the subcontinent's landscape. They moved with their animals, relying on milk and other pastoral products. They engaged in trade with settled agriculturists, exchanging wool and ghee for grain, cloth, and other necessities. These nomadic traders, known as the Banjaras, formed caravans called tanda. Sultan Alauddin Khalji utilized Banjaras to transport grain to city markets, and Emperor Jahangir noted their role in supplying grain to towns and the Mughal army. Their caravans could consist of thousands of bullocks, and they managed their own trade, moving from areas of cheap availability to more expensive markets.

Besides pastoral nomads, various itinerant groups, including craftspersons, peddlers, and entertainers, also traveled from place to place, practicing their occupations. These groups often followed a cyclical pattern, visiting the same locations annually. Petty peddlers sold goods like ropes and mats, while mendicants sometimes acted as wandering merchants. Entertainers performed in different towns and villages for their livelihood.

Changing Society: New Castes And Hierarchies

As the economy and societal needs evolved, new specialized skills became essential, leading to the emergence of new castes (jatis) within the existing varnas. Brahmanas, for instance, saw the formation of new jatis among them. Concurrently, many tribes and social groups were incorporated into the caste-based society and designated as jatis. Specialized artisans like smiths, carpenters, and masons were recognized as distinct jatis. Jatis, rather than varna, increasingly became the primary basis for social organization. A 12th-century inscription from Tamil Nadu describes a sabha (assembly of Brahmanas) deliberating on the status of rathakaras (chariot makers), defining their occupations to include architecture and building chariots and coaches.

New Rajput clans gained prominence by the 11th and 12th centuries, some of whom were previously tribal groups. With Brahmanical support, many tribes were integrated into the caste system, with their leading families joining the ruling class. However, many tribes in the northwest, who had adopted Islam early, continued to reject the caste system. The social inequalities prescribed by orthodox Hinduism were not widely accepted in these regions.

A Closer Look

The Gonds

The Gonds inhabited the region known as Gondwana and practiced shifting cultivation. This large tribe was divided into numerous smaller clans, each with its own chief (raja or rai). As the Delhi Sultanate's power waned, some large Gond kingdoms began to dominate smaller chiefs. The Gond kingdom of Garha Katanga, mentioned in the Akbar Nama, was extensive, comprising 70,000 villages. These kingdoms developed a centralized administration, with territories divided into garhs, controlled by specific Gond clans. Each garh was further divided into 84-village units called chaurasis, which were subdivided into barhots of 12 villages each.

The rise of these states led to social stratification among the Gonds. Gond chiefs sought Rajput status, with Aman Das of Garha Katanga adopting the title Sangram Shah. His son Dalpat married Rani Durgawati. After Dalpat's early death, Durgawati ruled capably, expanding the kingdom. In 1565, Mughal forces under Asaf Khan attacked Garha Katanga. Rani Durgawati put up strong resistance but was defeated and died, followed shortly by her son. Garha Katanga was rich from trading wild elephants. Upon their victory, the Mughals seized wealth and elephants, annexing part of the kingdom and granting the rest to Chandra Shah. Gond kingdoms persisted but weakened over time, eventually struggling against the Bundelas and Marathas.

The Ahoms

The Ahoms migrated to the Brahmaputra valley from Myanmar in the 13th century, establishing a new state by overcoming existing political systems. In the 16th century, they annexed territories like Chutiya and Koch-Hajo and subdued other tribes. The Ahom state was advanced in its use of firearms, developing high-quality gunpowder and cannons by the 1660s. They faced invasions from the southwest, including a Mughal attack led by Mir Jumla in 1662, though direct Mughal control was short-lived.

The Ahom state relied on forced labor, with able-bodied males serving as paiks, contributing labor rotationally and to public works like dam and irrigation construction. A census tracked the population for this system. The Ahoms also introduced new rice cultivation methods. Their society was organized into clans called khels, with artisans often coming from neighboring regions. Each khel controlled multiple villages, and land was held communally, with the king unable to reallocate it without community consent. Initially worshipping tribal gods, Ahom society saw increased Brahmanical influence by the 17th century, with the king granting land to temples and Brahmanas. Hinduism became dominant during Sib Singh's reign (1714-1744), although traditional beliefs persisted. Ahom society was culturally rich, with patronage for poets, scholars, and theater, and the translation of Sanskrit works into local languages. They also maintained historical records known as buranjis.

Conclusion

Significant social transformations occurred in the subcontinent during the period under examination. Caste-based societies and tribal communities frequently interacted, leading to mutual adaptation and change. Tribes adopted diverse livelihoods, with many eventually integrating into the caste-based social structure. Others, however, rejected both the caste system and orthodox Hinduism. Some tribes established powerful, well-administered states, becoming politically influential and engaging in conflicts with larger empires. The Mongols, a pastoral and hunter-gatherer tribe from Central Asia, united under Genghis Khan by 1206, forming a powerful military force that created a vast empire. Their military and administrative systems were supported by diverse ethnic and religious groups.